Dipu Bhowmik ¹; Zarjes Kader ²*; Biplob Hosen ²; Sharif Hossain ³

1, Department of Environmental Science and Disaster Management, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University, Gopalganj 8100, Dhaka, Bangladesh

2, Institute of Water and Environment, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Gazipur, Gazipur 1707, Bangladesh

3, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Civil, Environmental and Industrial Engineering, Uttara University, Holding 77, Beribadh Road, Turag, Uttara, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh

 

Manuscript link
http://dx.doi.org/10.30493/DAS.2024.483646

Abstract

This study examines the cumulative effects of climate disturbances, including salinity and cyclones, alongside human-induced resource degradation in southwestern Bangladesh. The main objective was to identify socioeconomic vulnerabilities with an emphasis on poverty and restricted access to water that intensify the effects of natural disasters. Data were gathered using surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), participatory research, and key informant interviews (KIIs) in the Mollahat, Fakirhat, and Chitalmari sub-districts of Khulna district, resulting in 100 replies from a varied population. 40% of respondents classified themselves as very poor, 40% utilized pond sand filters (PSFs) for potable water, and 75% of respondents reported facing drinking water shortages during the dry season (mid-March to mid-May). The predominant causes of surface water salinity reported in the region were flooding and shrimp aquaculture. The research emphasizes the importance of enhancing community resilience through capacity-building initiatives. Furthermore, improving health and education is crucial to diminish vulnerability to future calamities.

Keywords: Socioeconomic vulnerability, Water, Natural disasters, Bangladesh

Introduction

Bangladesh, with an area of around 147,570 km² and a population of almost 160 million, is exceedingly susceptible to geophysical and hydrometeorological disasters owing to its geographical location and climatic characteristics. The principal calamities of concern encompass floods, cyclones, droughts, tidal surges, tornadoes, earthquakes, riverbank erosion, groundwater pollution, waterlogging, and both water and soil salinity [1]. The southwestern coastal regions of Bangladesh, particularly in economically disadvantaged communities, are exceedingly susceptible to natural dangers such as cyclones, climate change, and seasonal variations [2]. Climate change constitutes a paramount threat to global communities, as demonstrated by many extreme climatic occurrences and their related hazards and disasters. An analysis of the impact of climatic extremes and related socioeconomic data for the period 2000–2019 ranks Bangladesh as the seventh most susceptible country in the world [3]. Approximately 32% of the nation’s total land, equating to roughly 47,201 km², is situated within the coastline region bordering the Bay of Bengal. Nineteen of the 64 districts have experienced several climate-induced coastal hazards and disasters, including cyclones, coastal erosion, storm surges, and saline intrusion. These occurrences have led to significant economic, social, and physical losses over time [4]. Floods are especially devastating, representing almost 40% of all natural disasters globally [5]. On the other hand, storm surges may last for few hours to many days and can extend up to 10 meters inland, leading to salinization by saltwater intrusion [6].

Socioeconomic vulnerability denotes the likelihood of people, households, or communities experiencing detrimental effects from disasters or crises as a result of their social and economic circumstances. It is affected by elements including poverty, resource accessibility, education, employment, health, housing, and social networks [7]. Individuals or collectives with diminished socioeconomic position may exhibit heightened susceptibility to catastrophes due to insufficient financial resources, inadequate infrastructure, or a lack of information necessary for preparation, response, or recovery from such occurrences. Socioeconomic vulnerability underscores the inequitable allocation of risk and the heightened susceptibility of marginalized or disadvantaged groups to be negatively impacted by disasters [8].

In recent years, several catastrophic cyclones inflicted extensive damage in Bangladesh, leading to the loss of hundreds of lives, disruption of agricultural production, and displacement of many inhabitants. Approximately 1.3 million inhabitants in the coastal districts of Bhola, Patuakhali, Pirozpur, Borguna, and Satkhira were impacted by these occurrences [9-12]. As a result, these communities are compelled to resort to detrimental coping mechanisms and encounter increased risks of gender-based violence, child labor, child marriage, and human trafficking, along with difficulties in obtaining adequate drinking water and sanitation services [13][14].

This study seeks to identify and analyze the current socioeconomic vulnerabilities in southern Bangladesh, with an emphasis on the effects of natural disasters. This research aims to elucidate the interactions among climatic shocks, human-induced resource degradation, and socioeconomic factors by analyzing the experiences of impacted populations in the Mollahat, Fakirhat, and Chitalmari sub-districts. The results will enhance comprehension of the difficulties encountered by these communities and provide suggestions for bolstering resilience and refining disaster management systems amid current and impending crises. This study’s findings will provide essential insights for disaster planners and policymakers, aiding them in prioritizing and enhancing the planning process.

Material and Methods

Study area

The study area is located in the southwestern portion of Bangladesh, specifically within the Bagerhat district, which is part of the coastal zone. The research focuses on the sub-districts of Fakirhat, Mollahat, and Chitalmari in Bagerhat district. The Bagerhat district, located within the Khulna division, covers an area of 3,959.11 square kilometers and is situated between latitudes 21°49′ and 22°59′ north and longitudes 89°32′ and 89°98′ east. It is bordered to the north by the Gopalganj and Narail districts, to the south by the Bay of Bengal, to the east by the Gopalganj, Pirojpur, and Barguna districts, and to the west by the Khulna district (Fig. 1).

Data collection

The primary data for this study were collected through face-to-face interviews through questionnaire methods. A total of 100 households were randomly selected from ten villages (Fig. 1) across three sub-districts by field survey [14] and data was obtained between 10 and 15 November 2021. The questionnaire comprised five components. The initial phase served as an introduction to the family, through which fundamental demographic and socio-economic information (age, gender, monthly income, monthly expenditure) was gathered. The second section focused on classifying land use types, land ownership/acquisition systems, and the economic status of the respondents. The third portion mostly addressed water sources and periods of drinking water scarcity. The fourth section focused on examining the respondents’ perspectives regarding the causes of water salinity and the health implications associated with drinking water. The fifth portion concentrated on inquiring about the most significant climate change-related disasters and the prevalent emergency evacuation procedures in the region. The participants were apprised of the study and its objectives and consented to partake in the survey.

The study also recorded four focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted within the study area. Two focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in Mollahat, while each of the other sub-districts hosted one FGD. Additionally, a total of seven experienced individuals participated in the key informant interviews (KIIs) conducted across these three sub-districts. During FGDs and KIIs, the primary issues addressed by the study were discussed, and viable solutions were proposed and integrated into the research. Secondary data were collected from a range of sources, including peer-reviewed journal articles, books, scholarly documents, and seminar or conference proceedings, to provide a comprehensive view of socio-economic vulnerability to natural disasters. Information from specialized websites, government, and non-government research and policy reports, as well as resources from national and international organizations, was also utilized.

Data analysis

After collection, the data was processed and organized. The processed data was then presented in graphical and tabular formats to ensure clarity and ease of understanding. Finally, the analyzed results are compiled into a comprehensive report that highlights the study’s conclusions based on the objectives (Fig. 2).

Results and Discussion

Socio-demographic status in the study area

An extensive evaluation of the demographic and socio-economic attributes of respondents is essential for assessing their socio-economic susceptibility to natural disasters. A systematic questionnaire was utilized to gather crucial demographic information. Acknowledging the substantial correlation between socio-economic characteristics and vulnerability, essential variables such as age, gender, and household income and expenditure were incorporated into the survey. These factors are usually utilized as essential metrics to evaluate vulnerabilities [15-21].

Age group and gender ratio

The survey revealed that 21% of respondents are aged below 35 years, 36% fall within the 36 to 45 age group, 28% are aged 46 to 55 years, 11% are between 56 and 65 years, 3% fall within the 66 to 75 age range, and 1% are over 75 years old (Table 1). Additionally, the average number of occupants per household was determined to be 5.21, slightly higher than the national average of 5.0 [22].Females represented 54% of the studied sample, while males accounted for 46%.

Socio-economic factors, including age, gender, household size, occupation, and income, are crucial in vulnerability assessments as they indicate various dimensions of susceptibility and resilience. Younger and older individuals, as well as those with lesser educational attainment, may possess restricted adaptive potential. Gender affects resource accessibility, and bigger households may experience increased resource pressure while perhaps gaining enhanced social support. Income and profession are essential determinants of financial resilience, as elevated income and stable employment typically diminish susceptibility. Incorporating these characteristics facilitates a comprehensive knowledge of vulnerability among various demographic groupings. This method guarantees a detailed comprehension of how these demographic parameters influence susceptibility in the context of natural disasters.

Total monthly household income and expenditure

The survey showed significant variability among the respondents in the study area regarding monthly income and expenditures (Table 1). The respondents were categorized into six income groups, ranging from those earning less than 5000 BDT (about 41.59 USD) per month to those earning above 17000 BDT (approximately 141.43 USD) per month. It is worth noting that the 8001-11000 BDT (roughly 66.55 -91.52 USD) income category contains the greatest proportion of the population, accounting for 31% of the total sample. Furthermore, this group also had the largest proportion of overall monthly expenditure, at 39%. This means that individuals within this income group are likely to have significant spending power and effect on the wider economy.  Conversely, hardly 5% of the population earns above 17,000 BDT (exceeding 141.43 USD), and only 1% of this demographic can designate a comparable sum for their expenses.

The amount of land owned by the family

The survey classified land ownership distribution among respondents based on acquisition methods across five land types: Non-Cultivable Land, Agricultural Land, Pond, Ghare, and Homestead Land utilized through five acquistation systems (Exchange, Borga, Lease, Buy, and owned by the family) (Fig. 3). Here, “Ghare” refers to areas utilized for shrimp cultivation, whereas “Borga” denotes a sharecropping system in which farmers cultivate land owned by others and allocate 50% or less of the harvested crops to the landowners.

Notably, 67%, 49%, and 90% of non-cultivable, Ghare, and homestead lands was inherited and owned by families, constituting the largest proportion of these categories. On the other hand, agricultural land use was distributed between Borga, lease, bought, or owned by the family. Exchange was among the least common land acquisition system across all categories. However, Borga and lease land acquisition systems were not reported among non-cultivated and homestead lands. This observation is expected since there is no reason to rent non-cultivatable land and there is no possibility of using rented land to build houses.

Taking into consideration the expenditures and income levels of the studied population (Table 1) impoverished farmers in Bangladesh frequently resort to selling assets as a coping mechanism during challenging periods [17][18]. This argument may justify the increased percentage of bought agricultural lands compared to family owned agricultural lands. Conversely, wealthier households are more inclined to implement diverse adaptation techniques due to superior access to resources, assets, and income [23].

Economic status of the respondents

Economic structure is an essential socio-demographic indicator [24]. The diversity in socioeconomic conditions among the respondents play a crucial role in shaping their livelihood patterns and adaptive strategies in this region.

The World Bank classifies individuals as “poor” if they live below the international poverty line of $2.15 per day and “very poor” if they fall below the extreme poverty line of $1.90 per day. On the other hand, those living above these thresholds are considered “not poor” with generally stable income sufficient to meet basic needs [25].

The survey indicates that in the study area, 40% of respondents come from very poor families, 45% are poor families, and only 15% are from families classified as not poor (Fig. 4). These results are similar to reports from Kurigram district northwest Bangladesh, where approximately 40% of the population resides in extreme poverty [26]. Another study found that the poverty value is about 36.8 using the tower poverty line and 52.2 using the upper poverty line of Head-Count Ratio (HCR), which indicated that a portion of the Tala and Satkhira Sadar sub-districts live below standard living conditions [27].

Sources of water

In 2009, hurricane Aila caused intensified water scarcity and elevated saline intrusion into groundwater in the southwestern coastal zone. The residents of this area predominantly depend on surface water to fulfill their daily requirements [28]. The field survey results identified the main water sources of drinking water in the area as tube wells, pond sand filters (PSF), rainwater, and isolated water tanks (ponds). The safe water shortage in the coastal region was a pressing concern. Given the broad salinity spectrum in both surface and groundwater, tube wells are unsuitable for the region; thus, new safe water solutions, such as pond sand filters, have emerged to address the water crisis [29].  A separate study [19] revealed that approximately 43% of families in the Dacop sub-district of Khulna have access to potable water, whereas 57% do not have access to safe drinking water.

During the pre-monsoon season, houses depended on water from tube wells (45%), PSF (35%), ponds (8%), supply (7%), and other sources (5%). In the monsoon season, water reliance transitioned to rain (39%), PSF (30%), tube wells (15%), ponds (6%), supply (7%), and other sources (3%) accordingly. During the post-monsoon season, the dependence on water sources shifted again, with just 2% derived from rainfall, 35% from PSF, 40% from tube wells, 11% from ponds, and 7% from alternative sources. During the dry season, the reliance was 25% on PSF, 52% on tube wells, 10% on ponds, and 5% on alternative sources. Prior to the Aila/Sidr cyclones, households relied on water supplies comprising 5% rainfall, 40% PSF, 35% tube wells, 12% ponds, and 8% from alternative sources in the research region (Fig. 5 A).

Similar to drinking water, the sources of water utilized for cooking are crucial for household food safety and nutrition, especially in regions where water quality and availability fluctuate. The supply of cooking water exhibited a trend analogous to that of drinking water (Fig. 5 B), with rainwater serving as the primary source during the monsoon season. Nonetheless, ponds and PSF provide as a significant source of boiling water throughout the year.

The intense tidal surges from the cyclone flooded numerous low-lying regions, resulting in soil and water salinization and producing a substantial water scarcity [28]. Two principal water sources were deemed inappropriate for consumption and other residential purposes, including cooking, bathing, and laundering [30]. Thus, “water harvesting” has become a feasible solution for obtaining safe drinking water, acting as an essential strategy for coastal inhabitants and reducing their dependence on alternative sources [31]. Therefore, most respondent families (39%) shift to rain water during monsoons to fulfill their drinking water needs as it represents a safer and cheaper method. Respondents perceive that discovering dependable sources of cooking water is crucial for health maintenance and adaptation to local water conditions. This constitutes a considerable worry, as about 40% of families said that the distances to water collection locations jeopardize women’s safety [32].

The period of the drinking water crisis

The timing and duration of water shortages are crucial elements influencing community health and well-being, especially in areas susceptible to seasonal fluctuations. Therefore, identifying the precise periods of heightened drinking water crises can facilitate the formulation of focused strategies to alleviate these issues.

All participants indicated encountering a drinking water crisis at different intervals over the year. Significantly, 46% of participants claimed that they predominantly encountered this problem during Choitro (mid-March to mid-April), whereas 29% mentioned having it during Boishakh (mid-April to mid-May). Furthermore, 8% of participants reported difficulties during Jyoishţho (mid-May to mid-June), 6% during Magh (mid-January to mid-February), and the remaining 11% acknowledged experiencing a crisis in Falgun (mid-February to mid-March) within the study area (Fig. 6). Participants in the focus group discussion and key informant interviews indicated that Choitro and Boishakh align with the dry season and are the farthest distant from the monsoon season in Bangladesh, during which coastal villages face significant water shortages. Consequently, 75% of respondents reported facing drinking water shortages during these two months (mid-March to mid-May).

Causes of water salinity

Natural and anthropogenic disasters are the principal sources of water scarcity and saline intrusion in aquatic ecosystems. The residents of the studied region primarily depend on surface water for their daily requirements. Thus, comprehending the factors contributing to surface water salinity from their viewpoint is essential for proposing effective remedies. The respondents indicated that pond salinity primarily arises from floods (31%) and shrimp cultivation (27%) (Fig. 7 A). Respondents in the examined sub-districts stated that river salinity is attributable to floods (36%), storms (19%), and shrimp farming (14%) (Fig. 7 B).

These factors exert both direct and indirect influences on salt levels in pond water. For instance, salt intrusion is adversely affecting agricultural production and biodiversity [6]. Moreover, shrimp farming substantially increases water salinity and adversely impacts the ecological systems in the southwestern portion of the country [33]. Focus group participants in the Mollahat sub-district indicated that shrimp agriculture is a key factor contributing to regional water salinity. Participants from the other two sub-districts articulated comparable perspectives, further emphasizing sea level rise and saltwater intrusion as significant determinants influencing water salinity.

Health issues associated with unsafe drinking water

A significant portion of the population in the research area is unaware of the hygiene and safety of drinking water, with many erroneously associating safe water exclusively with the absence of salt. Users of pond water demonstrate a greater vulnerability to waterborne infections than those utilizing alternative water sources. Various waterborne diseases, such as cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, and jaundice, have arisen from insufficient sanitary infrastructure in areas susceptible to natural disasters [19]. The public health crisis has worsened due to filthy surroundings and the ingestion of hazardous drinking water. As a result, there has been a notable rise in the prevalence of many waterborne diseases in the region.

The survey indicated that 35 % of the participants reported multiple health problems linked to contaminated drinking water in the study region. Among these cases, diarrhea (18%), dysentery (15%), skin diseases (12%), worm infections (5%), typhoid (16%), jaundice (17%), and arsenic-related ailments (15%) were the most common (Fig. 8).

In 2013, the prevalence of waterborne infections, including diarrhea, was 21.29%, in contrast to 11.57% in 2003 and 16.20% in 2008 [27]. In 2013, the prevalence of skin illnesses was significantly elevated at 31.42%, surpassing that of other health issues. This rise is ascribed to the persistent exposure of individuals to contaminated, stagnant water, which serves as a waste disposal location in the region [34]. Moreover, [6] indicates that 28.75% and 35.31% of respondents said that during natural hazards, residents of southwestern coastal villages suffered injuries or health complications, such as diarrhea, dysentery, and dermatological conditions. The absence of economic soundness precludes adequate treatment, resulting in prolonged suffering for the populace. Another significant element affecting health is nutrition, which is determined by food consumption [27].

Climate change-related disasters in the region

Bangladesh is frequently recognized as one of the most susceptible nations worldwide. The South-Western areas, notably Bagerhat, have been profoundly impacted by successive natural disasters in recent years. This study examines climate change-related tragedies that have transpired in this region.

From the respondents’ point of view, storms (25%) and salinity intrusion (23%) are perceived as the predominant natural threats, succeeded by cyclones (18%) and waterlogging (15%). Infrequent dangers comprise severe rainfall (4%), food scarcity (4%), and river erosion (3%). A small percentage of responders (2%) indicated other hazards, whilst 6% were uncertain or uninformed about the specific hazards (Fig. 9).

The results highlight that storms and salinity are the primary natural threats in the region, whereas other hazards are rather minor. Furthermore, the residents in the study region have suffered losses of land, capital, and cattle due to different dangers, including river erosion and flooding [6]. A separate study indicated that waterlogging results from a confluence of factors, including excessive monsoon rainfall, insufficient drainage, mismanagement and neglect of embankments, increased sedimentation and siltation of rivers, and restricted river flows caused by embankments constructed for shrimp farming [27].

Natural disaster and emergency evacuation process in the region

Efficient administration of disasters and emergency evacuation procedures is essential in areas susceptible to environmental threats. Comprehending the processes and obstacles related to evacuation procedures helps bolster community resilience and mitigate hazards during natural disasters.

Out of the respondents, 46% reported seeking shelter in cyclone centers following natural disasters such as Amphan, Sidr, or Aila. On the other hand, 33% sought sanctuary in schools, whereas 19% took shelter in the houses of relatives, and 2% in other locations (Fig 10).  

Studies demonstrate a substantial positive association between the nearness of cyclone shelters and the probability of individuals utilizing those shelters during cyclones [11]. For instance, [35] noticed critical elements affecting evacuation decisions, such as the cyclone’s proximity to one’s residence, distance from the shoreline, and literacy rates. Participants in the FGDs and KIIs expressed that several persons are hesitant to flee during natural disasters due to apprehensions about abandoning their houses and belongings, which necessitates increasing public awareness to rapidly respond to evacuation announcements.

Adaptive strategies to natural hazards in the southwestern communities of Bangladesh

Considering the prior findings and the recommendations from FGDs and KIIs, several effective solutions can be implemented to alleviate the impact of natural disasters on water sources and overall health in the studied region:

• Diversification of income sources: Numerous individuals in coastal areas transitioned from agriculture to alternate income sources, like fishing, aquaculture, or small-scale trading, as farming became untenable owing to flooding, soil salinity, and economic disruptions resulting from the epidemic.
• Enhancing community-based networks: Communities depended significantly on social networks and cooperatives to consolidate resources, disseminate information, and allocate relief items. This cultivated social resilience and facilitated coordinated catastrophe response during the epidemic when governmental assistance was constrained.
• Migration as an adaptive strategy: In many instances, temporary or permanent migration to urban locales or regions less impacted by natural catastrophes emerged as a coping mechanism for households confronting economic instability or loss of livelihood in rural environments.
• Employment of internet platforms: For instance, throughout the COVID-19 epidemic, internet platforms were essential for obtaining market information, government assistance, and remittances. Farmers, fishers, and small business proprietors increasingly depended on mobile banking and web services to maintain economic operations, notwithstanding mobility constraints.
• Alteration of agricultural methods: Farmers implemented resilient agricultural techniques, including the cultivation of salt-tolerant crops, the utilization of elevated seedbeds, and the adoption of integrated farming systems that merge crop production, livestock husbandry, and aquaculture. These actions alleviated the effects of salinity and flooding.
• Community health interventions: In light of heightened susceptibility to the pandemic and other health issues related to natural disasters (especially water pollution), community health awareness initiatives, frequently spearheaded by local NGOs, should concentrate on disease prevention, mental health assistance, and nutritional advice to mitigate health vulnerabilities associated with illnesses and pandemics.
• Rainwater harvesting and alternative water sources: Coastal areas experiencing elevated saline levels had a shortage of potable water. Communities have adopted rainwater collecting and pond-sand filtering systems as adaptive strategies to ensure a healthy water supply in response to deteriorating conditions resulting from climate-induced saline intrusion. Local governments should provide further financial support for these strategies to facilitate broader community adoption.

Conclusion

This study underscores the pronounced susceptibility of populations in the southwestern coastal regions of Bangladesh, especially in Bagerhat, to recurrent natural catastrophes like cyclones and floods. Residents in the Mollahat, Fakirhat, and Chitalmari sub-districts face challenges in their coping mechanisms due to restricted access to safe drinking water, leading many to depend on microbially contaminated pond water without sufficient treatment. The study’s key findings indicate that restricted access to clean drinking water and food insecurity intensify the effects of environmental disturbances with over 40% of respondents depending on pond sand filters and nearly 75% facing seasonal water shortages during fry months. Furthermore, the results reveal that hardly 5% of the population possesses the earning potential to fall within the 14001-17000 BDT range (116.57 – 141.43 USD), underscoring that the community in the study area is a marginalized segment within the nation. While certain PSFs and Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) systems yield comparatively safe water, their efficacy is limited by challenges pertaining to water quality, accessibility, and expense. Considering the acknowledged significance of PSFs as a secure drinking water source for public health, it is imperative to improve the installation and management of both current and new PSFs. By tackling these water supply difficulties, we can substantially reduce risks linked to hazardous drinking water for economically disadvantaged coastal areas. This strategy enhances public health results and fortifies the resilience of communities against persistent climate change and natural disaster risks. The activities, informed by the study’s findings, emphasize the necessity for collaboration among local governments, national authorities, and communities to mitigate socioeconomic vulnerability and bolster resilience to climate-induced catastrophes in Bangladesh’s coastal areas. Investment in water, health, education, and infrastructure is essential for enhancing disaster management and safeguarding vulnerable people. To mitigate socioeconomic vulnerability in specific sub-districts of southern Bangladesh, it is essential to improve early warning systems, fortify disaster-resilient infrastructure, and diversify livelihoods beyond agriculture. Emphasizing Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) via local training, adopting climate-resilient agriculture methodologies, and enhancing healthcare facilities are crucial measures. Subsequent research and intervention initiatives must prioritize the integration of sustainable water management practices and disaster preparedness methods in order to create a more resilient future for the inhabitants of southern Bangladesh.

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Cite this article:

Bhowmik, D., Kader, Z., Hosen, B., Hossain, S. Exploring socioeconomic vulnerability and natural disasters impacts on water access in Southwestern Bangladesh. DYSONA – Applied Science, 2025;6(1): 186-199. doi: 10.30493/das.2024.483646