Nita Maria Rosiana ¹*; Arinda Lironika Suryana ¹; Zora Olivia ¹; Agatha Widiyawati ¹; Viggo Dewangga ²; Sofwatul Hidayah ¹

1, Clinical Nutrition Study Program, Health Department, State Polytechnic of Jember, Jember, Indonesia

2, English Study Program, Language, Communication and Tourism Department, State Polytechnic of Jember, Jember, Indonesia

 

Manuscript link
http://dx.doi.org/10.30493/DAS.2025.485348

Abstract

The objective of the research is to examine the pasting properties, thermal characteristics, and crystallinity of complementary food formulated from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder, utilizing a rapid visco-analyzer (RVA), a thermal analyzer (DSC), and a crystallinity analyzer (XRD), and to compare these findings with a commercial product. The supplementary food was formulated with soybean powder, milk powder, dragon fruit peel powder, and sugar. Two ratios of soy powder to milk powder (5:9 and 1:1) were tested and a commercial product was used as a reference. The findings indicated that the complementary food composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder exhibited distinct pasting qualities and thermal characteristics compared to the commercial product. Although the complementary food made from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder displayed inferior thermal properties relative to the commercial product, all formulations demonstrated similar endothermic curves and C-type crystallinity, signifying comparable functional characteristics such as thickening or gelling. Consequently, additional research is necessary to improve the thermal properties of evaluated formulations while preserving their nutritional content during preparation.

Keywords: Thermal characteristics, Pasting properties, Soybean flour, Dragon fruit, Crystallinity

Introduction

Complementary food denotes the provision of healthy sustenance or beverages to newborns, alongside milk, to guarantee nutritional sufficiency. This practice is essential between 6 to 24 months, a pivotal stage in the initial 1000 days of life. Inappropriate dietary behaviors during this period can adversely impact all facets of an infant’s development, including organ maturation, growth, and metabolism, potentially resulting in long-term consequences for general health and development. Therefore, the primary aim of supplemental food is to avert malnutrition and prevent overweight, stunting, and obesity [1].

Complementary food entails the amalgamation of diverse dietary components in precise proportions to produce a high-value product. Instant supplemental food powder can be formulated from substances like cereals, tubers, nuts, seeds (such as soybeans and peanuts), milk, fish, meat, chicken, fruit, or other suitable food sources [2]. Soybeans are an appealing source of protein, cost-effective, and easily processed into complementing food products. Soybean powder contains 37.89% protein and 19.45% fat [3]. The amalgamation of soybean powder and dragon fruit extract alleviates the undesirable odor of soybeans, imparts natural coloration, and acts as a source of vitamin C enrichment [1].

Soybean powder contains up to 30% carbohydrates [3]. Starch is an essential raw ingredient in the food industry owing to its advantageous characteristics, such as a low gelatinization temperature and a limited propensity for retrogradation. The heating and pasting capabilities are among the most significant functional aspects of starches. The analysis of pasting behavior is generally conducted by observing alterations in the viscosity of a starch system through rheological principles. The pasting curve offers various factors that signify the extent of disintegration and the occurrence of retrogradation [4].

Starch constitutes the primary component of soybean, and it is plausible that the pasting properties of these starches may change following thermal processing. However, the combinations of soybean and dragon fruit peel used as supplementary foods have not yet been investigated using rapid visco-analyzer (RVA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Consequently, examining the adhesive properties of these combinations is intriguing. This study aimed to investigate the pasting properties, thermal characteristics, and crystallinity of complementary food formulated from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder, RVA, DSC, and XRD analysis methods and to compare these findings with a commercial product. This study seeks to improve the comprehension of starch functions in the manufacture of supplemental meals.

Material and Methods

Material

Soy powder was purchased from CV Cipta Cakrawala Niaga, milk powder “Primamil” from PT Frisian Flag Indonesia, dragon fruit peel powder from CV. Dua Langkah Kecil Indonesia, and sugar “Gulaku” from PT Gula Putih Mataram.

Formulation of complementary food

For the preparation of the P1 and P2 formulations of supplemental food, soybean flour, dragon fruit peel powder, milk powder, and sugar were combined according to the specified formulations (Table 1). On the other hand, for P3 formula, a commercial product comprising rice flour, wheat flour, sugar, maize flour, skim milk, soy flour, vegetable oil, banana powder, inulin, mineral mix, lysine, vitamin mix, and fish oil was used.

Analysis process

Thermal properties

The assessment of the thermal characteristics of the formulations was performed utilizing Rigaku – DSC 8230 Equipment. For that purpose, 14 µL of water was precisely supplied to a formulation sample weighing 2.7 mg (dry weight basis) in the DSC pans using a micro-syringe. The pans were thereafter sealed, reweighed, and maintained at room temperature for 24 hours to enable the flour sample to equilibrate with the water. The samples were scanned from 30°C to 200°C at a heating gradian rate of 10°C/min [5].

Pasting properties

The pasting properties of samples were assessed utilizing the RVA-TecMaster. The rapid visco analyser canister was filled with distilled water (25 g) as well as the formulation sample (2 g), accounting for a reference moisture content of 14%. The mixture was homogenized prior to the commencement of the test. The measurements recorded included pasting temperature, peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown viscosity, final viscosity, and setback viscosity [6].

Crystallinity

Crystallinity was assessed by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The analysis was performed over a range of 2θ angles (8–70°) at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 40 mA. The wavelength of X-ray radiation was 1.5406 Å.

Statistical analysis

All analyses were performed in triplicate utilizing a completely randomized experimental design. SPSS 29.0 software was used for data analysis. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) coupled with Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test were used to compare means at a significance level of p<0.05.

Results and Discussion

Thermal properties

The commercial product had a higher onset temperature (To) of 191.8 °C, suggesting more robust intermolecular interactions relative to the complementary food composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder. A same trend is noted in the peak temperatures (Tp), with values of 192.8, 198.4, and 215.4 °C for P1, P2, and commercial formulations, respectively (Fig. 1). The elevated Tp of the commercial product indicates a greater energy demand for the phase transition, corroborating the finding of enhanced thermal stability. Higher concentrations of salt and sugar have been observed to elevate To and Tp in starch suspensions [7][8], suggesting a greater sugar content in the commercial product relative to the examined formulations of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder.

The identical outcome was observed at the conclusion temperature as Tc values rose from 197.7 °C in P1 to 219.0 °C in the commercial product. Consequently, the gelatinization process occurs at a reduced temperature for supplemental food derived from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder in comparison to the commercial product. The enthalpy change (ΔH) varied from 126.56 j/g in P1 to 83.98 j/g in the commercial formula (Fig. 1). The commercial product had the lowest ΔH, indicating a reduced energy need for gelatinization relative to the evaluated P1 and P2 formulations. The P2 formula had a significantly lower ΔH value than P1, attributable to its increased soybean flour content. The elevated To, Tp, and Tc in the commercial product, alongside reduced ΔH values relative to P1 and P2, underscores the stability of starch and the diminished preparation time in the former compared to the evaluated formulations. This observation may be ascribed to increased crystallinity, the presence of high-amylose corn starch, or reduced starch granule size in the commercial product. Due to the potential adverse effects of elevated preparation energy demands on the nutritional quality of food products [9], precise modifications and the integration of alternative starch sources into the tested formulations are essential to enhance stability, reduce energy requirements during preparation, and maintain nutritional quality.

Pasting properties

Various data such as peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown viscosity, final viscosity, setback viscosity, peak time, and pasting temperature (Fig. 2) were recorded. The results indicated that the values obtained from commercial product surpasses those composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder across all parameters.

The peak viscosity of the supplemental meal varies from 25 Cp in P1 to 354 Cp in P3 (Fig. 2 A). Peak viscosity quantifies the extent of granule swelling and the strength of cohesive forces among molecules in the flour [10]. Consequently, the granules of the commercial product exhibited greater swelling than those of the complementary food composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder. The commercial product contains banana flour, which has a high peak viscosity [11][12]. On the other hand, cassava flour supplemented with soybean flour exhibited a reduction in peak viscosity of relative to native cassava flour. The incorporation of soybean diminishes the intermolecular forces [13]. The complementary food composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder exhibits the lowest peak viscosity, signifying inadequate penetration of water molecules and resulting in minimal granular swelling. In fact, more swelling enhances the cohesive forces inside the flour rendering it less susceptible to degradation. This indicates that the commercial product’s capacity to expand and absorb water upon heating surpasses that of other formulations. The reduced values for the supplementary food derived from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder are attributed to the high fiber content of dragon fruit peel and the protein in soybean flour, which inhibit starch swelling.

The trough viscosity of the supplemental meal ranges from 7 to 86 Cp (Fig. 2 A). Trough viscosity denotes starch’s capacity to endure extended exposure to elevated temperatures during processing or heating [5]. In industrial applications, maintaining high starch stability in paste is crucial, as substantial alterations in its properties during and post-processing might result in unwanted textural changes [14]. Consequently, complementary food derived from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder, characterized by low paste stability, would be less desirable for food processing in comparison to the commercial product.

The breakdown viscosity in tested complementary food ranged from 17 to 268 Cp (Fig. 2 A). Breakdown viscosity quantifies the disparity between peak and trough viscosities, reflecting the rate of gelling stability and contingent upon the product’s characteristics [15]. Flours with low breakdown viscosity demonstrate greater stability under elevated temperatures and display enhanced cross-linking inside the granules [5]. This indicates that soy flour, characterized by its low breakdown value, exhibits enhanced connecting properties. A low breakdown value of starch signifies enhanced stability of starch granules during cooking, which can be affected by the presence of protein and fat. These components augment the cross-linking inside the starch granules, rendering them less susceptible to degradation [15]. Furthermore, decreased breakdown viscosity correlates with reduced rupture of starch granules, hence assuring a more stable cooked paste [14]. The final viscosity of the supplemental food varied between 21 and 142 Cp (Fig. 2 A). Final viscosity denotes the paste viscosity assessed at a temperature of 50°C during the cooling process. It demonstrates the capacity of starch granules to undergo reformation and retrogradation of starch molecules. The increased ultimate viscosity signifies superior retrogradation characteristics, leading to enhanced gel formation. The reduced final viscosity indicates less retrogradation, attributed to proteins and fibers that disrupt starch reassociation. Final viscosity assesses the starch’s capacity to create a thick paste following cooking and cooling [15].

The setback of the supplemental food varies from 14 to 56 Cp (Fig. 2 A). The low setback value of the complementary food composed of soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder indicates superior resistance to retrogradation, in contrast to the commercial product, which demonstrates a higher setback value and, consequently, lower stability. A low setback value signifies that the paste exhibits diminished cohesiveness and a decreased propensity to retrograde during cooling [15]. Peak time indicates the simplicity of preparing a certain sample. Lower peak time values were observed in the prepared formulations P1 and P2 with 1.07 min each. On the other hand, peak time in the commercial product was significantly higher (4.73 min) (Fig. 2 B).

Proteins in soy flour may influence the gelatinization process in multiple ways, contingent upon their water retention capacity and their interaction with starch molecules and the granule surface [15]. Previous research demonstrated a substantial positive connection between the peak viscosities of starch and protein, implying a favorable interaction between the extent of starch gelatinization and the degree of protein denaturation during heating and cooling cycles [16]. Conversely, dragon fruit comprises pectin, which, akin to numerous other hydrocolloids, effectively mitigates retrogradation. Retrogradation may induce unfavorable textural alterations in starch-laden foods. The decrease in starch setback may be ascribed to the rivalry between hydrocolloids and amylose molecules in forming intermolecular bonds during the cooling process. This rivalry reduces the quantity of amylose-amylose interactions, which are essential for starch retrogradation [14].

Crystallinity

X-ray analysis of starch is important in assessing crystallinity and crystallite structure, identifying the botanical source of starches, investigating starch complex formation, and analyzing the spacing inside starch helices in structural research. All complementary foods exhibited a pronounced peak at around 20 °C (Fig. 3). This augmentation is chiefly ascribed to the development of amylose-lipid complexes [17]. The peaks signify C-type crystallinity, resulting from the coexistence of A- and B-type crystallites [13]. This aligns with prior study indicating that the crystallinity of soybean flour is of the C-type, exhibiting a higher proportion of B-type polymorphs compared to A-type, with percentage crystallinity between 27% and 36% [18]. The incorporation of dragon fruit peel powder may influence the crystallinity of supplementary meals (Fig. 3 A and B). Fruit powders high in sugar frequently encounter difficulties with their functional attributes, including stickiness, solubility, and hygroscopicity [18]. Certain fruits, including apples, mangoes, and tomatoes, display C-type crystallinity [19].

Overall, the evaluated P1 and P2 formulations demonstrated higher crystallinity relative to the commercial product. This is probably attributable to the simpler composition and elevated levels of soybean flour and milk powder, which encompass crystalline mineral phases. Increased crystallinity in food products is associated with enhanced heat stability and regulated nutrient release [20]. The commercial product possesses a more amorphous structure due to the intricate blend of ingredients, such as processed flours and oils, which diminish crystallinity. The presence of magnesium oxide, aluminum phosphate silicate, and calcium oxide in P1 and P2 indicates that milk powder and soybean flour are substantial contributors to mineral content. Dragon fruit peel powder provides trace nutrients such as Iron and copper sulfate and molybdenum oxide, enhancing its nutritious value.

Conclusions

Complementary food derived from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder has distinct properties in comparison to the commercial product. The gelatinization temperature (Tp), gelatinization enthalpy (ΔH), and all pasting properties of the supplementary food derived from soybean flour and dragon fruit peel powder are inferior to those of the commercial product. Nevertheless, they possess identical C-type crystallinity, and higher overall crystallinity with substantial mineral content and nutritious value. Therefore, more research should be conducted in order to further refine the thermal properties of the developed formulations in order to preserve their nutritional value during preparation and increase their stability.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to express gratitude to P3M Politeknik Negeri Jember for providing research funding under contract number 7934/PL17/KP/2024. This work is a proceeding of a preliminary work presented at the 7th International Conference on Food and Agriculture 2024 (ICoFA 2024) (https://conference.polije.ac.id/icofa/2024/) hosted by Politeknik Negeri Jember, Indonesia.

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Cite this article:

Rosiana, N. Maria, Suryana, A. Lironika, Olivia, Z., Widiyawati, A., Dewangga, V., Hidayah, S. The thermal properties, pasting properties, and crystallinity of complementary food made from soybeans flour and dragon fruit peel powder. DYSONA – Applied Science, 2025;6(2): 262-268. doi: 10.30493/das.2025.485348